State Systems in the Americas

Environmental Factors Shaped the Development of Societies in the Americas

Societies in the Americas developed differently than Afro-Eurasia. While the Americas did develop large-scale and complex societies, they were generally smaller than the large-scale societies in Eurasia. Nowhere in the Americas did a large civilization develop that matched the size of places like the Abbasid empire in the Islamic world or Song dynasty China.

Characteristics of American State Systems

Smaller State Systems

chiefdoms, city-states, tribal governments (exception Inca)

Smaller Populations

The total population in the Americas was around 30 million out of a global total of around 400 million.

Less urbanization

exceptions Maya and Aztec cities in Latin America and Cahokia in North America

Lower trade volumes

exceptions Maya and Aztec cities in Latin America and Cahokia in North America

More political fragmentation

Increased numbers of rulers with control over small pieces of territory

Environmental Factors That Shaped Development of Societies in the Americas

The characteristics of American societies listed above resulted from unique environmental factors in the Americas. These American environmental characteristics resulted in less agriculture production and less trade, leading to less wealth creation and less expansive civilizations. Americas unique environmental characteristics include the following.

Geographic alignment

North and South America are on a north/south alignment. This alignment meant that more climatic variations separated early American civilizations. These climatic variations made it harder to move across the landmass that separated early American civilizations. East/west land alignments, such as Eurasia, have fewer climatic variations because they cross fewer lines of latitude.

Lack of domesticable animals

The Americas also lacked easily domesticable animals that travelers could ride or use to carry goods across vast distances. As a result, travel and trade options were limited. There were no camels or horses, horses, or oxen like in Afro-Eurasia. The lack of domesticable animals also made it challenging to increase agriculture production as animals were not available for agricultural uses. People in South America did manage to domesticate llamas. However, the llama's usefulness was limited. They can not carry the heaviest loads and have difficulty operating as work animals outside the mountainous climate zone in which they evolved.

Comparison across regions: Africa has a similar north/south alignment as the Americas. As a result, African societies and states developed most similarly to the Americas. Though, because of their proximity to Eurasia, Africa had higher levels of trade and communication.

State Systems in America Were Largely Tribal

Before the arrival of Europeans, numerous complex native civilizations and cultures populated North America. These first nations’ peoples were diverse. Many tribes were nomadic or semi-nomadic, while others built permanent structures and settlements. Tribes such as the Inuit in the far north of North America were mainly hunting and gathering people, while the Mississippians were agriculturalists. Tribes engaged in low volume trade both with neighbors and across longer distances. Natives also produced beautiful works of art and monumental architecture, such as the Pueblo tribe’s cave dwellings at Mesa Verde.

Common Elements of State Systems in North America

Governance in North America was primarily tribal.
There were no large centralized state structures.
Tribes in North America did not construct large bureaucratic systems responsible for creating large and elaborate laws and taxation systems. However, leaders did make essential decisions regarding food production, interactions with neighboring tribes, and the building of permanent structures needed by the tribes.
Religious leaders and elders often led tribes. Within certain native civilizations such as the Pueblo, smaller tribes or individual villages would have their own leader. When smaller tribes gathered together into larger groups, elders and tribal leaders would often meet and make decisions through consensus.

Major Tribal Governments in North America

The following are two of the many native societies that populated North America.

Chaco (The Pueblo)

The Pueblo flourished in the American Southwest between the 9th and 12th centuries. Their name comes from the communal pueblos dwellings that the tribes lived within. Traditional American depictions of first nations peoples are of wholly nomadic societies that lived in teepees. The Pueblo proves that common belief is incorrect. While the Pueblo migrated during specific periods, they lived within their pueblo structures during other periods. Chaco Canyon and the cliff dwellings of Mesa Verde are the most well-known Pueblo archeological sites.

The Pueblo people maintained an agricultural economy.

Women traditionally did the farming work, which centered on maize and cotton production in irrigated river beds.
Men were responsible for hunting to gain meat and animal hides.
Small-scale trade was a feature of Pueblo society. Trade connections had been established toward the Pacific Coast and south through Mexico toward Aztec lands. Commonly traded goods included ceramic vessels, stones to make tools, precious stones such as turquoise to make jewelry and ornaments, and feathers to make blankets.
Trade took place in markets where Pueblo tribes would gather during specific times of the year.

Cahokia (Mississippi Valley Civilization)

The Mississippian people emerged between the 8th and 16th centuries in the Mississippi River valley. The society that they created was the largest in North American civilization before the arrival of Europeans. This Mississippi River valley civilization was not one tribe but a collection of different native tribes. The core of this civilization was the city of Cahokia, which is in present-day Illinois. In 1250, the population of Cahokia numbered 40,000–larger than London at that time.

Agriculture was the predominant economic activity in the Mississippi River valley. Commonly produced items included beans, corn, squash, and tobacco. Across the region, several important commerce centers developed in both large cities like Cahokia and smaller villages. Commonly traded items included stone, leather, copper, shells, wood, and feathers. Trade networks stretched from the Atlantic coast to the Great Lakes and down to the Gulf Coast.

Residents abandoned Cahokia around the year 1450, with smaller cities abandoned over the next 150 years. Scholars continue to debate the reasons for the decline of the Mississippian people. Some scholars believe the fall was a result of diseases introduced by the Europeans. Other theories emphasize climatic changes that made the continuation of old ways of life and social structures difficult. Most likely, the end of Cahokia and the decline of the Mississippi valley civilization was a complex result of multiple factors.

The Larger State Based Governing Systems of Latin and South America

Latin and South America produced larger formalized bureaucratic state systems. These societies include the Maya, the Mexica (Aztec), and the Inca.

The Maya-City States

The Maya were an intellectually and technologically advanced urban civilization in Southern Mexico and Northern Guatemala. At its height, the Maya population numbered in the millions.

The Maya were a scientifically advanced civilization. Below are a few of their significant scientific and cultural achievements.

The Maya had an advanced form of writing known as Maya glyphs. Experts have deciphered the Maya writing, helping us better understand their civilization.
The Maya left behind beautiful architectural masterpieces such as the Temple of El Castillo.
Advanced Mayan architecture was made possible by their understanding of complex mathematical concepts, including zero.
Mayan knowledge of astronomy was also far more advanced than many places in the world. The Maya had correctly calculated the 584-day cycle of the planet Venus within just two hours. They had accurately calculated the earth’s movement, moon, sun, solar and lunar eclipses, and planets visible from earth.
The Maya kept meticulous historical records noting what earthly events happened on days with major astronomical events. Religious and political leaders viewed these records as valuable guides for the future.

The Mayan civilization was a collection of independent and semi-independent city-states. Each city-state maintained its independence from the other Maya city-states.

City-state governments were theocratic (run by religious authorities) and run by a ruling class of priests and kings. Mayan rulers ran their city-states from urban centers. The largest of which was Tikal in present-day Guatemala.
Warfare was a continuous feature of Mayan political life. City-states were often at war with one another.
Despite attempts to create a unified Mayan political system, no city-state successfully united the Mayan people together.

The Mexica (the Aztec)

The Aztecs were a semi-nomadic group that moved into Southern Mexico and established themselves on a small island in the middle of Lake Texcoco at the start of the 14th century. Over the next few hundred years, the Mexica people built up an empire through a series of marriage alliances and military victories over neighboring civilizations.

Like the Maya before them, the Aztec were a scientific and culturally advanced civilization.

At its height, the Aztec Empire numbered between 5 and 6 million inhabitants.
The Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan, modern-day Mexico City, continued the Maya tradition of building elaborate pyramids around planned cities.
The Aztec supplemented agriculture grown in areas outside the city with crops grown hydroponically on floating platforms on lake Texcoco.

The Aztecs developed an extensive state-based system in Latin America of a loose collection of city-states of conquered peoples.

The Aztec government was a theocracy run by a king who was both the political ruler and the chief religious authority.
Conquered people’s rulers were allowed to stay in power as long as they submitted to the Aztec and paid the required tribute.
Tribute payments included labor to the Aztec state, agriculture and animal products, and manufactured products like paper, jewelry, and military equipment.
The Aztecs would station warriors and Aztec government officials in different provinces and cities to ensure conquered peoples’ compliance.

The Inca

The Inca Empire was the largest political and territorial system in the Americas before the arrival of Europeans. At its heights, Inca territory stretched 2500 miles along the Pacific coast of South America. By 1525 the population numbered nearly 10,000,000 individuals.

The Incan government was the largest in the Americas. Like the Maya and Aztec, the Inca government was a theocratic monarchy run by a king that was also a high religious leader.

Inca rulers divided the empire into districts managed by high-status men loyal to the Inca emperor.
The Inca maintained an extensive centralized bureaucratic system.
Instead of tribute to the state, which was common in the Maya and Aztec empires, the Inca government required people to provide corvee labor to the state through the Mita system. Mita required Inca citizens to give a specified number of days of work to the state each year. Workers farmed agricultural lands, provided military service, or build public infrastructure like roads.

Agricultural production was the foundation of the Inca economy.

Most families were subsistence farmers who worked to produce agriculture for their own family’s needs.
Farmers were required to turn over a portion of their produce to the state as tax revenue. Crops turned over to the government were used to feed the small non-farming urban and governing classes or stored for use during famine times.
Common staple crops included coca, peanuts, potatoes, maize, squash, and tomatoes. The Inca traded less than the Maya and Aztecs.
The Incan government owned and controlled the small amount of trade that took place across the Inca empire. Trade was not a substantial part of the Incan economy.

State Systems in the Americas

Learning Objective

Historical Development 1

Historical Development 2

Historical Development 3

Contents